Institutionalization of Philippine "Insurrection" 

The United States has an obligation to civilization to clarify whether or not they fought a "war" or "insurrection" in the Philippines during the early part of the 20th Century. If they had fought a "war" and that the U.S. War Department had downgraded the conflict to merely "insurrection" in order to avoid combat pay to their troops, why didn't they bother to correct it for the sake of historical truth? 

We know the answer:  the United States realized later that the war was an embarrassment to them, after they were laughed at by other superpowers for fighting a "rag tag" army, and that "insurrection" was a convenient way to cover the embarrassment.  For the Filipinos, knowing that the Americans were only an occupying forces at the outbreak of the war, "insurrection" is a stigma to their fifty-year independence struggle, of which the Independence War was the major part.

Perhaps "insurrection" will remain forever embedded and institutionalized in our civilization, thus depriving mankind of the historical truth!

      • P.A.W.C.I.

"The resistance to the United States in 1899 should not be belittled by the term "Philippine Insurrection." It was more than an insurrection -it was a legitimate war of protest, waged under capable and idealistic Filipino leaders. Mabini summed up the Filipino aims of 1899. He was a great Filipino statesman, and his words reflect his greatness:
"The Filipinos realize that they can expect no victory over the American forces; they are fighting to show the American people that they are sufficiently intelligent to know their rights...the Filipinos maintain their fight against American troops, not from any special hatred, but in order to show the American people that they are far from indifferent to their political situation..."
      • Victor Hurley, Jungle Patrol: The Story of the Philippine Constabulary, page 24.

Topics on Philippine "Insurrection" 

Links to Philippine "Insurrection"
  • Recent U.S. Legislative Bills Making Reference to 'Philippine Insurrection' 
America's 'First War for Humanity' 

"The only trace of bitterness shown by veterans was over their loss of combat and travel pay, and other benefits, because the government refused to acknowledge officially that the conflict had been a "war." A pamphlet prepared for a 1922 rennin of the Minnesota volunteers complained that in "America's first war for humanity" --its longest since the Revolution, with the longest combat service and highest percentage of men killed or wounded --its veterans "Received No Bonus, No War Risk Insurance, No Adjusted Compensation, No Vocational Training and No Hospitalization Until 1922." In that year they were quietly granted veterans' benefits, although the status of the conflict remained an "insurrection." " 
 

--Stuart C. Miller, in his book Benevolent Assimilation , page 272 

Definition of Conflict: 
  • Insurrection - an uprising against an established or duly constituted authority. 
  • War - open armed conflict between countries or factions within the same country. 

If there was an open armed conflict between the Filipinos and the Americans which broke out on February 4, 1899 and to last for many months, why was it called "insurrection" and not "war?" 
 

Historian's Opinion on Philippine "Insurrection": 

"There could be no insurrection, however, because the United States did not control the Islands when the Philippine-American War began in 1899. The fighting that ensued took place between two organized forces, one representing the government of the United States and the other representing the revolutionary government of the Philippine Republic under the leadership Emilio Aguinaldo." 

Analysis on Interpretations on Philippine "Insurrection" 
 
 Aspect Filipino Point of View American Point of View
What's in the name
"insurrection?"
  • "Insurrection" robs away the dignity from those who fought the independence war.
  • Humiliation to the Filipinos as the vanquished people.
  • None, except glory for the victor.
  • Had the Americans lost their 1776 American Revolution, they too would have been considered "insurrectionists."
Legal 
  • Article III of the Peace Protocol allowed the Americans to hold only the city and harbor of Manila.
  • Except the Morolands, the Christian Filipinos controlled the whole Philippine archipelago.
  • The U.S. has no legal basis to downgrade the "war" as merely "insurrection" other than its own economic reason to avoid combat pay.
  • Philippine conquest from the Spaniards.
  • Violation to their Constitution to hold foreign colonies other than protecting their own borders.
  • Violation to the Constitutional principles of "government by the consent of the governed."
  • Making a double standard out of the Monroe Doctrine --that "America is for the Americans", and so "Philippines for the Filipinos?"
Historical
truth		 U.S. has obligation towards civilization to accept the historical truth and acknowledge the difference  between "war" and "insurrection." Laughed at by other superpowers for fighting a "rag tag" Filipino army, the "insurrection" was a convenient justification of the war and to cover the U.S. embarassment.
Basis for "insurrection" Filipinos contend that it was not an insurrection because:
  • The Philippine Republic had already existed when the war broke.
  • Spain had already lost control of the whole archipelago at the war outbreak.
  • At the outbreak of the war, the Americans were only occupation forces sent by President McKinely to fight in the Spanish-American War, Philippine Theater.
  • Imperialistic claim that they were the established authorities in the Philippines at the outbreak of the war.
  • The conquest of the Spaniards in Manila transferred the colonial authority to the U.S. from Spain. Based on this principle, the Filipinos being called "insurrectos" by the Spaniards can be called "insurgents" by the Americans.
  • Some sectors claim that only a small minority of Filipinos refused to accept American role and that the nationalist forces of Aguinaldo were mere bunch of trouble-makers.
Foreign relations irritant  For the United States to keep institutionalizing the "insurrection," is an irritant issue to the relations between two countries. Having no political pressure from the Filipinos and advocates of historical truth, the United States feels no obligation to correct the historical distortion.

 

Test for "established authority" at the outbreak of the Philippine conflict on February 4, 1898: 

  • For the Americans : 
Article III, Peace Protocol of August 12, 1898, ordering the cession of hostilities of the Spanish-American War, provides: 
    "The United States will occupy and hold the city, bay and harbor of Manila, pending the conclusion of a treaty of peace which shall determine the control, disposition, and government of the Philippines." 
By virtue of this truce agreement, it is evidently clear that the Americans were to be confined only in Manila. 
  • For the Filipinos:   
The Philippine Republic based at Malolos, Bulacan, a representative form of government that was formally inaugurated on January 23, 1898, was barely thirteen days old when the open hostilities broke out. 

Except for Manila which was held by the Americans and the Morolands of Mindanao, the Christian Filipino forces led by Emilio Aguinaldo controlled the rest of the Philippine archipelago. 

After the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898 the Spaniards in the Philippines were no longer a military factor except for their forces to cover the evacuation of their citizens and families. All provinces except Zamboanga were abandoned by the Spaniards and many of their officers, who had considered the Philippines as their home, joined the forces of Aguinaldo instead of being repatriated to Spain. 
 

Reasons Why the U.S. Lacked the "Established Authority" at War Outbreak:

  • The Peace Protocol of August 12, 1898 were to confine the Americans only within the borders of the city of Manila. 
  • The Treaty of Paris signed on December 10, 1898 was not ratified by the U.S. Senate until February 6, 1899 or two days after the outbreak of the hostilities. In order for the treaty to be internationally binding, there was to was to an exchange of treaty ratifications for which Spain complied not until April 11, 1898. 
  • The U.S. assumption of  "established authority" or Philippine sovereignty by virtue of their possession of the island by conquest from Spain violates their old Constitutional principle of "government by consent of the governed." 
  • In the presence of an active Philippine independence movement led by the Republican forces of Emilio Aguinaldo, the contested issue over Philippine sovereignty could only be resolved by "war", not "insurrection." 
Table of Events that Institutionalized the 
Philippine "Insurrection" 
Period/Date 
Event 
Quote/Article Referring to Philippine Insurrection 
Person/Institution 
Quoted 
May 21, 1898  Cable of instruction to Commodore George Dewey in Manila  "It is desirable, as far as possible… not to have political alliances with the insurgents or any faction in the islands that would incur liability to maintain their cause in the future."  U.S. Navy Secretary John D. Long 
June 1898  Cable of reprimand for U.S. Consuls Spencer Pratt of Singapore, Rounsevelle Wildman of Hong Kong, and Oscar Williams of Manila  "Avoid unauthorized negotiations with Philippine insurgents ."  U.S. Secretary of State William R. Day 
August 14, 1898  Capitulation of Manila  "We purposely gave the insurgents no notice of the attack on Manila, because we did not need their cooperation. We were moved by the fear that they might loot, plunder, and possibly murder. Aguinaldo's men and subordinate leaders in conversing with the American officers would frequently say that they intended to cut the throats of all the Spaniards in Manila."  Major-General Wesley Merritt, overall commander of the U.S. expeditionary forces in the Philippines during the Spanish-American War, Philippine theater. 
Dec. 10, 1898  Treaty of Paris  Spain will, upon the signature of the present treaty, release all prisoners of war, and all persons detained or imprisoned for political offenses, in connection with the insurrections in Cuba and the Philippines and the war with the United States.  Article VI, Treaty of Paris 
1900  Downgrading the title of the conflict  "The War Department, in order to avoid combat pay, reasserted its position that there was no "war" in the islands. The activity in the Philippines was merely an "insurrection" . 
[Article from the New York Sun ] 		 U.S. War Department 
July 4, 1902 Proclamation ending the Philippine "Insurrection"  Whereas many of the inhabitants of the Philippine Archipelago were in insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the Kingdom of Spain at divers times from August, eighteen hundred and ninety-six, until the cession of the archipelago by that Kingdom to the United States of America, and since such cession many of the persons so engaged in insurrection have until recently resisted the authority and sovereignty of the United States; [Excerpt from opening preamble of the Proclamation]  U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt 
1981  Book titled "The War with Spain in 1898."  "The most imposing short-run consequence of the relatively inexpensive struggle was a long, sanguinary, and expensive colonial conflict — the Philippine Insurrection ."  David F. Trask, chief military historian at the U.S. Army Center for Military History. 
Notes: 
  • The book "The War with Spain in 1898" is only one of the many modern-day books that makes reference to the Philippine Insurrection . 
  • Describing the Filipinos as insurgents predates the Philippine Independence War (1899-1902), which makes reference to insurgency directed against Spain. 
  • The term insurgents was conveniently carried-over term used by the Americans to describe the Filipinos during the Spanish-American War and the succeeding Independence War. 

    President Theodore Roosevelt's Proclamation 
   Formally Ending the Philippine "Insurrection" 
and Granting of Amnesty and Pardon 

July 4, 1902 
____________________________

Whereas, many of the inhabitants of the Philippine Archipelago were in insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the Kingdom of Spain at divers times from August, eighteen hundred and ninety-six, until the cession of the archipelago by that Kingdom to the United States of America, and since such cession many of the persons so engaged in insurrection have until recently resisted the authority and sovereignty of the United States; and 

Whereas, the insurrection against the authority and sovereignty of the United States is now at an end, and peace has been established in all parts of the archipelago except in the country inhabited by the Moro tribes, to which this proclamation does not apply; and 

Whereas, during the course of the insurrection against the Kingdom of Spain and against the Government of the United States, persons engaged therein, or those in sympathy with and abetting them, committed many acts in violation of the laws of  civilized warfare, but it is believed that such acts were generally  committed in ignorance of those laws, and under orders issued by the civil or insurrectionary leaders; and 

Whereas, it is deemed to be wise and humane, in accordance with the beneficent purposes of the Government of the United States towards the Filipino people, and conducive to peace, order, and loyalty among them, that the doers of such acts who have not already suffered punishment shall not be held criminally responsible, but shall be relieved from punishment for participation in these insurrections , and for unlawful acts committed during the course thereof, by a general amnesty and pardon: 

Now, therefore, be it known that I, Theodore Roosevelt, President of the United States of America, by virtue of the power and authority vested in me by the Constitution, do hereby proclaim and declare, without reservation or condition, except as hereinafter provided, a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine Archipelago who have participated in the insurrections aforesaid, or who have given aid and comfort to persons participating in said insurrections , for the offenses of treason or sedition and for all offenses political in their character committed in the course of such insurrections pursuant to orders issued by the civil or military insurrectionary authorities, or which grew out of internal political feuds or dissension between Filipinos and Spaniards or the Spanish authorities, or which resulted from internal political feuds or dissension among the Filipinos themselves, 
during either of said insurrections : 

Provided, however, That the pardon and amnesty hereby granted shall not include such persons committing crimes since May first, nineteen hundred and two, in any province of the archipelago in which at the time civil government was established, nor shall it include such persons as have been heretofore finally convicted of the crimes of murder, rape, arson, or robbery by any military or civil tribunal organized under the authority of Spain, or of the United States of America, but special application may be made to the proper authority for pardon by any person belonging to the exempted classes, and such clemency as is consistent with humanity and justice will be liberally extended; and 

Further provided, That this amnesty and pardon shall not affect the title or right of the Government of the United States, or that of the Philippine Islands, to any property or property rights heretofore used or appropriated by the military or civil authorities of the Government of the United States, or that of the Philippine Islands, organized under authority of the United States, by way of confiscation or otherwise; 

Provided further, That every person who shall seek to avail himself of this proclamation shall take and subscribe the following oath before any authority in the 
Philippine Archipelago authorized to administer oaths, namely: 

           "I, ________________ , solemnly swear (or affirm) that I recognize and accept the supreme authority of the United States of America in the Philippine Islands and will maintain true faith and allegiance thereto; that I impose upon myself this obligation voluntarily, without mental reservation or purpose of evasion. So help me God." 

           Given under my hand at the City of Washington this fourth day of July in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and two, and in the one hundred and twenty-seventh year of the Independence of the United States. 

[ Source : U.S. Senate. The Mabini Case. 57th Congress., 2nd Session. Doc. No. 111 
(Jan. 26, 1903). Bold text of insurrection emphasis by the website author.] 


EDITORIAL 

The [Philippine] "Insurrection" 

Reprinted from The Philippine Post , Thursday, February 4, 1999. (Philippine Media Post, Inc., Quezon City, Philippines) 
______________________________ 

Philippine-American relations started on the wrong foot. At the height of the Filipino Revolution against Spain, Admiral Dewey's armada showed up in Manila Bay and made a pretense of showing interest in the Filipinos' cause. In no time, U.S. troops started arriving en masse and, using guile, deprived General Emilio Aguinaldo of a chance to win a decisive victory over the besieged Spanish army. 

It was a U.S. volunteer who fired the first shot that triggered the Filipino-American War, the second and concluding phase of the Revolution. It was a legitimate war of independence, a continuation of the Filipinos' struggle to achieve freedom, this time against a new enemy. But in American history books and official files, the Filipino cause is known as the "Philippine Insurrection." 

It was not an insurrection, of course. The word means an open revolt against civil authority, defiance against constituted government. The American forces in 1899 were interlopers in Philippine affairs, uninvited visitors who had overstayed their welcome. The only authority at the time was the Philippine Republic under Aguinaldo, the first constitutional government in Asia. 

The Philippine-American War was one of the most savage in military history. Many historians have referred to it as "the first Vietnam," owing to the death, torture, savagery, and destruction that characterized the war. The case of the Balangiga bells sears the memory not only for the sentiments attached to the carillons but to the murderous violence that befell the town of Balangiga. 

That war deserves commemoration, which the nation performs today, the centennial of the struggle. It was an unforgettable experience for the Filipinos who contended with new arms technology and novel military tactics. The war lasted longer than the first phase of the Revolution, sired its own heroes and heroines. When the newcomers officially declared victory, Filipino generals and their men fled to the hills to continue the fight. 

Apart from paying tribute to these heroes, we ought to press a campaign to have the United States voluntarily rectify current references to the Philippine-American War as the "Philippine Insurrection." The campaign includes the rehabilitation of General Aguinaldo not as a "brigand" but a statesman-warrior. The campaign was started in the Philippine Senate with a resolution calling on President Estrada to secure a proper and just rectification of the error. 

It is said, of course, that history is written by the victors. But with the hindsight of a hundred years, and the long history of friendship between Filipinos and Americans, it becomes the obligation of the United States to correct the mistake. Many Filipinos are also saying that American textbooks on Bataan and Corregidor — including the tragic Death March — edit out much of the valor and participation of Filipino soldiers. 

As a sidebar, February historically is observed, under the auspices of Philippine and Japanese organizations, as Philippine-Japan Friendship Month. The occasion reminds us about the cause of the "comfort women," the Asian women, including Filipinas, who were pressed into prostitution by the Japanese imperial army. The victims have asked for justice — through apologies and proper restitution. Tokyo has refused to take official cognizance of the issue, preferring to have a privately organized fund to handle the matter. This is an evasion of responsibility. The Japanese government has already apologized to China, South Korea, and other Asian countries for wrongs committed by its troops during World War II. An apology to the comfort women and the masses of Filipinos who were victimized by Japanese cruelty is long overdue. 

For now, the Philippine foreign office should undertake a diplomatic initiative for the United States to correct its history books and official files on the Philippine-American War. It was not, to repeat, an act of banditry but a legitimate exercise of the Filipino people of their right to be free of foreign domination. References to the War as an "insurrection" must stop in the interest of historical truth and justice and for building permanent foundations of mutual friendship and respect. Failure to do so would leave real gaps between young generations of Filipinos and Americans in their understanding of a common past. 


HCON 60 IH 
    106th CONGRESS 
      1st Session 
    H. CON. RES. 60 
Expressing the sense of the Congress that a series of commemorative postage stamps should be issued honoring veterans service organizations across the United States. 

IN THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

     March 18, 1999 
Mr. DINGELL (for himself, Mr. GEPHARDT, Mr. DELAY, Mr. BONIOR, Mr. HYDE, Mr. FROST, Mr. COSTELLO, Mr. EVANS, Mr. SHOWS, Mr. MOORE, Mr. HILL of Indiana, Mr. MALONEY of Connecticut, Mr. JENKINS, Mr. ROMERO-BARCELO, Mr. MCKEON, Mr. FRANK of Massachusetts, Mr. BERMAN, Mr. ENGEL, Mr. ENGLISH, Mr. TALENT, Mr. MCCRERY, Mr. FILNER, Mr. KILDEE, Mr. SPRATT, Mr. BAIRD, Mr. BROWN of Ohio, Mr. TRAFICANT, Mr. BOUCHER, Mr. BLAGOJEVICH, Ms. EDDIE BERNICE JOHNSON of Texas, Mr. JOHN, Ms. KILPATRICK, Mr. FARR of California, Mr. CROWLEY, Ms. LOFGREN, Mr. DICKEY, Mr. FOSSELLA, Mr. BATEMAN, Mr. BUYER, Mr. RAHALL, Mr. COYNE, Mr. BALDACCI, Mr. GREEN of Texas, Mrs. CAPPS, Mr. NEY, Mr. CLYBURN, and Mr. LUTHER) submitted the following concurrent resolution; which was referred to the Committee on Government Reform 

           CONCURRENT RESOLUTION
Expressing the sense of the Congress that a series of commemorative postage stamps should be issued honoring veterans service organizations across the United States. 

Whereas the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States, which was formed by veterans of the Spanish-American War and the Philippine Insurrection to help secure rights and benefits for their service, celebrates its 100th anniversary in 1999; 

Whereas American service personnel have fought, bled, and died in every war, conflict, police action, and military intervention in which the United States has engaged during this century; 

Whereas over history, veterans service organizations have ably represented the interests of veterans in Congress and State legislatures across the Nation, and established networks of trained service officers who, at no charge, have helped millions of veterans and their families secure the education, disability compensation, and health care benefits they are rightfully entitled to receive as a result of the military service performed by those veterans; and 

Whereas veterans service organizations have been deeply involved in countless local community service projects and have been constant reminders of the American ideals of duty, honor, and national service: Now, therefore, be it 

    Resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That-- 
        (1) the United States Postal Service should issue a series of commemorative postage stamps in 1999 honoring the legacy and the continuing contributions of veterans service organizations to America; and 

        (2) the Citizens' Stamp Advisory Committee should recommend to the Postmaster General that such a series of commemorative postage stamps be issued. 

END

SCON 12 IS 
    106th CONGRESS 
        1st Session

    S. CON. RES. 12 

Requesting that the United States Postal Service issue a commemorative postage stamp honoring the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States. 

IN THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES

February 22, 1999

Ms. COLLINS (for herself, Mr. INOUYE, Mr. NICKLES, Mr. ROTH, Mr. FRIST, Mr. JEFFORDS, Mr. ROCKEFELLER, Mr. TORRICELLI, Mr. KERRY, Mr. DEWINE, Mr. COVERDELL, Mr. VOINOVICH, Mr. SHELBY, Mr. HELMS, Mr. ROBB, Mr. CLELAND, Mr. CONRAD, Mr. DASCHLE, Mr. GRASSLEY, Mr. ABRAHAM, Mr. AKAKA, Mr. ALLARD, Mr. BAUCUS, Mr. BROWNBACK, Mr. BRYAN, Mr. CHAFEE, Mr. CRAIG, Mr. DODD, Mr. DOMENICI, Mr. ENZI, Mr. FEINGOLD, Mr. FITZGERALD, Mr. GORTON, Mr. GRAMM, Mr. GREGG, Ms. LANDRIEU, Mr. STEVENS, Mr. THURMOND, Mr. WELLSTONE, Mr. SPECTER, Mr. ASHCROFT, Mr. DURBIN, Mr. WARNER, Mr. HAGEL, Mr. REID, Mr. INHOFE, Mrs. BOXER, Mr. BIDEN, Mr. GRAMS, Mr. LOTT, Mr. KENNEDY, Mr. SESSIONS, Mr. LAUTENBERG, Ms. SNOWE, Mr. WYDEN, Mr. HATCH, Mr. CRAPO, and Mrs. LINCOLN) submitted the following concurrent resolution; which was referred to the Committee on Governmental Affairs 

CONCURRENT RESOLUTION 

Requesting that the United States Postal Service issue a commemorative postage stamp honoring the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States. 

Whereas the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States (hereinafter in this resolution referred to as the 'VFW'), which was formed by veterans of the Spanish-American War and the Philippine Insurrection to help secure rights and benefits for their service, will be celebrating its 100th anniversary in 1999; 

Whereas members of the VFW have fought, bled, and died in every war, conflict, police action, and military intervention in which the United States has engaged during this century; 

Whereas, over its history, the VFW has ably represented the interests of veterans in Congress and State Legislatures across the Nation and established a network of trained service officers who, at no charge, have helped millions of veterans and their dependents to secure the education, disability compensation, pension, and health care benefits they are rightfully entitled to receive as a result of the military service performed by those veterans; 

Whereas the VFW has also been deeply involved in national education projects, awarding nearly $2,700,000 in scholarships annually, as well as countless community projects initiated by its 10,000 posts; and 

Whereas the United States Postal Service has issued commemorative postage stamps honoring the VFW's 50th and 75th anniversaries, respectively: Now, therefore, be it 

    Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That the Congress requests that the United States Postal Service issue a commemorative postage stamp in 1999 in honor of the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States. 
END 

 
 

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